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Ferdinand Tönnies
Ferdinand Tönnies (; 26 July 1855, near Oldenswort, Eiderstedt, North Frisia, Schleswig – 9 April 1936, Kiel, Germany) was a German sociologist and philosopher. He was a major contributor to sociological theory and field studies, best known for his distinction between two types of social groups, Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. He co-founded the German Society for Sociology, of which he was president from 1909 to 1933, after which he was ousted for having criticized the Nazis. Tönnies was considered the first German sociologist proper,〔See Louis Wirth, ''The Sociology of Ferdinand Tonnies'', in ''American Journal of Sociology'' (Vol. 32, No. 3 (Nov., 1926), pp. 412-422 ).〕 published over 900 works and contributed to many areas of sociology and philosophy.
==Life==
Ferdinand Tönnies was born into a wealthy farmer's family in North Frisia, Schleswig, then under Danish rule. He studied at the universities of Jena, Bonn, Leipzig, Berlin, and Tübingen. He received a doctorate in Tübingen in 1877 (with a Latin thesis on the ancient Siwa Oasis).〔''De Jove Ammone questionum specimen'', Phil. Diss., Tübingen 1877〕 Four years later he became a private lecturer at the University of Kiel. He held this post at the University of Kiel for only three years. Because he sympathized with the Hamburg dockers' strike of 1896,〔Ferdinand Tönnies: ''Hafenarbeiter und Seeleute in Hamburg vor dem Strike 1896/97'', in: Archiv für soziale Gesetzgebung und Statistik, 1897, vol. 10/2, p. 173-238〕 the conservative Prussian government considered him to be a social democrat, and Tönnies would not be called to a professorial chair until 1913. He returned to Kiel as a professor emeritus in 1921 and taught until 1933 when he was ousted by the Nazis, due to earlier publications in which he had criticized them.〔See Uwe Carsten, ''Ferdinand Tönnies: Friese und Weltbürger'', Norderstedt 2005, p. 287–299.〕 Remaining in Kiel, he died three years later.〔New World Encyclopedia contributors, "Ferdinand Tönnies," New World Encyclopedia, 1 September 2008, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies&oldid=796849 (accessed 28 November 2015), 〕
Many of his writings on sociological theories — including ''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft'' (1887) — furthered pure sociology. He coined the metaphysical term ''Voluntarism''. Tönnies also contributed to the study of social change, particularly on public opinion,〔''Kritik der öffentlichen Meinung'', (), in: ''Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe'', tom. 14, ed. Alexander Deichsel/Rolf Fechner/Rainer Waßner, de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2002〕 customs and technology, crime, and suicide.〔Cf. ''Der Selbstmord von Maennern in Preussen'', (en Maatschappij'', 1933 ), in: ''Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe'', tom. 22, ed. Lars Clausen, de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1998, p. 357-380.〕 He also had a vivid interest in methodology, especially statistics, and sociological research, inventing his own technique of statistical association.〔Lars Clausen: ''Ferdinand Tönnies (1855-1936)'', in: ''Christiana Albertina'', No. 63, Kiel 2006, p. 663-69〕
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